Philippine–American War
| Philippine–American War | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
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| Belligerents | |||||||||
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1899–1902: |
1899–1902: | ||||||||
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1902–1913: |
1902–1913: Tagalog Republic (until 1906) Maguindanao Sultanate (until 1905) Sulu Sultanate | ||||||||
| Commanders and leaders | |||||||||
| Units involved | |||||||||
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1902–1913 Irreconcilables Babaylanes Pulajanes Moro people | |||||||||
| Strength | |||||||||
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≈80,000–100,000 regular and irregular | ||||||||
| Casualties and losses | |||||||||
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1,020 killed 3,176 died of disease 2,930 wounded |
About 10,000 killed (Emilio Aguinaldo estimate), 16,000–20,000 killed (American estimate) | ||||||||
| 200,000–250,000 civilian deaths | |||||||||
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The Philippine–American War, known alternatively as the Filipino–American War, Philippine Insurrection, or Tagalog Insurgency, emerged in early 1899 following the United States' annexation of the former Spanish colony of the Philippine Islands under the terms of the December 1898 Treaty of Paris following the Spanish–American War. Philippine nationalists had proclaimed independence in June 1898 and constituted the First Philippine Republic in January 1899. The United States did not recognize either event as legitimate, and tensions escalated until fighting commenced on February 4, 1899, in the Battle of Manila.
Shortly after being denied a request for an armistice, the Philippine government issued a proclamation on June 2, 1899, urging the people to continue the war. Philippine forces initially attempted to engage U.S. forces conventionally but transitioned to guerrilla tactics by November 1899. Philippine President Emilio Aguinaldo was captured on March 23, 1901, and the war was officially declared over by the US on July 4, 1902. However, some Philippine groups continued to fight for several more years. Other groups, such as the Muslim Moro peoples of the southern Philippines and quasi-Catholic Pulahan religious movements, continued hostilities in remote areas. The Moro Rebellion ended with their final defeat at the Battle of Bud Bagsak on June 15, 1913.
The war resulted in at least 200,000 Filipino civilian deaths, mostly from famine and diseases, including at least 150,000 deaths in a cholera epidemic towards the end of the war. Some estimates for civilian deaths reach up to a million. War crimes were committed during the conflict by both sides. In retaliation for Filipino guerrilla warfare tactics, the U.S. carried out reprisals and scorched earth campaigns and forcibly relocated many Filipino civilians to concentration camps, where thousands of them died. The war and subsequent occupation by the U.S. changed the culture of the islands, leading to the rise of Protestantism, disestablishment of the Catholic Church, and the adoption of English by the islands as the primary language of government, education, business, and industry. The U.S. annexation and war sparked a political backlash from anti-imperialists in the U.S. Senate, who argued that the war was a definite example of U.S. imperialism, and that it was an inherent contradiction of the founding principles of the United States contained in the Declaration of Independence.
In 1902, the United States Congress passed the Philippine Organic Act, which created the Philippine Assembly. This act was superseded by the 1916 Jones Act (Philippine Autonomy Act), which contained the first official declaration of the United States government's commitment to eventually grant independence to the Philippines. The 1934 Tydings–McDuffie Act created the Commonwealth of the Philippines, increased self-governance and established a process towards full independence. This would however be delayed by World War II and the Japanese occupation of the Philippines. The United States eventually withdrew and granted independence in 1946 through the Treaty of Manila.