Menelik II

Menelik II (Ge'ez: ዳግማዊ ምኒልክ dagmawi mənilək; horse name Aba Dagnew (Amharic: አባ ዳኘው abba daññäw); 17 August 1844 – 12 December 1913), baptised as Sahle Maryam (ሣህለ ማርያም sahlä maryam), was king of Shewa from 1866 to 1889 and Emperor of Ethiopia from 1889 to his death in 1913. A member of the Solomonic dynasty, Menelik expanded the Ethiopian Empire to its greatest historical extent and defeated Italian colonial forces at the Battle of Adwa in 1896. He is widely regarded as the founder of the modern Ethiopian state.

A member of the Shewan branch of the Solomonic dynasty, Menelik was born in Angolalla, Shewa, as Sahle Maryam, the son of Haile Melekot (Negus of Shewa). Named "Menelik" by his grandfather King Sahle Selassie after the legendary Menelik I (son of Solomon and the Queen of Sheba), he was imprisoned at age 11 by Emperor Tewodros II at the fortress of Magdala following his father's death in 1855. He escaped in 1865 amid Tewodros's declining power, returned to Shewa, and was acclaimed as its rightful king. Though harboring imperial ambitions, he avoided challenging northern rivals during the British Expedition to Abyssinia in 1868 and submitted to Emperor Yohannes IV in 1878 after failed collaboration with the Egyptians during their invasion (1875–1876).

As quasi-independent ruler of Shewa from 1878 to 1889, Menelik built his power base through direct European diplomacy, securing modern weapons and expertise from advisors like Swiss engineer Alfred Ilg. He conquered southern territories inhabited by Oromo, Wolayta, and Kaffa peoples, exploiting ivory, coffee, gold, and slave trade revenues to fund arms, while establishing fortified katama settlements and the neftenya land system. The strategic conquest of Harar in 1887 made it Shewa's trade hub under Ras Makonnen. Following Yohannes's death at the Battle of Metemma in 1889, Menelik was crowned emperor at Mount Entoto on 3 November 1889.

Menelik signed the Treaty of Wuchale with Italy in 1889; the Italian version implied a protectorate, while the Amharic allowed optional use of Italian diplomacy—a deliberate deceit he repudiated by 1891. The treaty also stated in both languages that Ethiopia was to cede Mereb Melash and with it all access to the Red Sea. Mobilising a unified army of over 100,000, he crushed Italian forces at the Battle of Adwa on 1 March 1896, securing Ethiopia's independence and full European recognition. He defined borders through treaties with Britain, France, and Italy, initiated the Addis Ababa–Djibouti Railway, and centralized governance with ministries, schools, and a state bank. After strokes from 1906 left him incapacitated by 1909, Empress Taytu Betul and later Ras Tessema Nadew served as regents. He died in 1913 and was succeeded by grandson Lij Iyasu (later deposed), followed by daughter Zewditu and Ras Tafari Makonnen (the future Haile Selassie).

Menelik was a controversial figure for much of his reign. Although he was praised internationally as a symbol of African resistance to colonialism and credited with being the architect of modern Ethiopia, critics among incorporated ethnic groups accused him of forced assimilation, land expropriation, and cultural suppression that contributed to later ethnic tensions.