Khamr

Khamr (Arabic: خمر, plural, khumūr Arabic: خمور), is an Arabic word for wine or intoxicant. In Islamic context, is variously defined as alcoholic beverages, wine or liquor. The position of alcohol in Islam is a complex subject in terms of its historical implementation and nuanced scholarly interpretation. While the "dominant" belief among Muslims is that consumption of alcohol in any form is forbidden, and in addition selling, transporting, serving, etc. alcohol is also a sin, there are some disagreements; for example, the Hanafi school interprets khamr to mean only certain specified beverages, rather than all intoxicants. According to Murtaza Haider of Dawn, "A consensus (ijma) on how to deal with alcohol has eluded Muslim jurists for more than a millennium".

How khamr in Islam is defined varies by the school of jurisprudence (madhhab). Most Islamic jurists have traditionally viewed it as general term for any fermented intoxicating beverage, though one school (Hanafi) has limited it to alcohol derived from dates and grapes. Over time, other intoxicants, such as opium and khat, have been classed by jurists as khamr. A minority of Muslims do drink and believe consuming alcohol is not Qur'anically forbidden. Among Alawites, an esoteric sect of Islam, Sufi Bektashis, Alevis, and Ahmadis, the consumption of alcohol is permissible. The punishment for consumption of alcohol is disagreed upon; some believe that any punishment for consuming alcohol is un-Islamic, while others believe it is flogging, though legal scholars disagree over whether the number of lashes should be 40 or 80.

Historically, many Muslim elites consumed alcohol, encompassing the reign of the Umayyads, the Abbasids, Islamic Spain (al-Andalus), and dynasties that ruled Egypt and the eastern, Persianate half of the Muslim world. These included notable rulers such as al-Hakam I (r. 796–822), al-Mu'tamid (r. 870–892), and Abd al-Rahman III (r. 912–961). Drinking wine was also reflected by Islamic poets, such as Abu Nuwas (d. 814), Ibrahim al-Nazzam (d. 845), Omar Khayyam (d. 1131), Rumi (d. 1273), and Hafez Shirazi (d. 1390). Wine consumption in the Islamic Golden Age was a mainstream literal practice, sometimes even intertwined with religious rituals. A notable figure during this period was the Islamic philosopher Ibn Sina (d. 1037), who would refresh himself in his studies with a cup of wine.

Modern Islamic countries have low rates of alcohol consumption, and it is completely banned in several of them while strictly controlled in others (such as consumption being allowed only in private places or by non-Muslims). Muslim-majority countries produce a variety of regional distilled beverages such as arak and rakı. There is a long tradition of viniculture in the Middle East, particularly in Egypt (where it is legal) and in Iran (where it is banned). Beer has been historically produced in Mesopotamia (mostly present-day Iraq) and Egypt.