Conspiracies in ancient Egypt

In ancient Egypt, evidence suggests that political conspiracies occasionally occurred within the royal palace, including plots against reigning monarchs. While most surviving texts are silent on internal struggles for influence, a limited number of historical and literary sources—some indirect, others more explicit—indicate instances of discord within the royal family. The polygamous nature of many pharaohs’ households, which often included numerous concubines residing in harem complexes, may have contributed to rivalries among royal women. In certain periods, these rivalries led to the formation of factions, with some individuals allegedly acting out of ambition or jealousy. These internal divisions sometimes culminated in plots against the king, typically with the aim of advancing the position of a secondary wife and her son in competition with the children of the Great Royal Wife.

During the Old Kingdom, the 6th Dynasty is associated with accounts of palace intrigue. According to the Egyptian priest and historian Manetho, Pharaoh Teti was assassinated by members of his own bodyguard. Archaeological evidence of a campaign of damnatio memoriae (erasure from history) supports the plausibility of this event. Pepi I is said to have survived a conspiracy, reportedly instigated by a royal wife, as recounted in the autobiography of Judge Ouni. The legendary figure of Queen Nitocris, mentioned by the Greek historian Herodotus, is said to have avenged the assassination of her brother Merenre II by orchestrating the deaths of the conspirators, although the historical accuracy of this account remains debated. In the Middle Kingdom, the assassination of Amenemhat I is alluded to in two key literary sources: Instructions of King Amenemhat to his Son and the Story of Sinuhe. These texts imply that members of the royal household, including bodyguards, harem wives, and royal sons, may have been complicit. The writings suggest tensions surrounding the succession of Senusret I, the intended heir.

During the New Kingdom, the late 18th Dynasty witnessed episodes of political instability. The death of the Hittite prince Zannanza-Smenkhkare—possibly identified with Smenkhkare—during his journey to marry an Egyptian queen is regarded by some scholars as an assassination. The early 19th Dynasty saw speculation regarding the succession of Ramesses II. While earlier theories suggested he eliminated an elder brother, current scholarship considers this unlikely. Nevertheless, there may have been rivalries involving high-ranking officials, such as General Mehy, an adviser to Seti I. Following the death of Merenptah, succession disputes led to a series of conspiracies. Amenmes challenged his half-brother Seti II for the throne. The influential chancellor Bay supported the installation of the young king Siptah, before being executed on the orders of Queen Twosret, who was later overthrown by the general Sethnakht, founder of the 20th Dynasty. Ramesses III, considered a restorer of order, was himself the target of a major conspiracy. After a reign of over thirty years, he was assassinated in a plot involving Queen Tiye and her son, Prince Pentawer. The Judicial Papyrus of Turin documents the conspiracy, which implicated over thirty individuals, including palace officials, soldiers, priests, and magicians. Although the assassination was successful, the coup failed; Ramesses IV, the intended successor, ascended the throne.